Modification of the flower heads of Sonchus arvensis (family Compositae) by the gall former Tephritis dilacerata (order Diptera, family Tephritidae)

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Abstract
Flower heads of S. arvensis inhabited by T. dilacerata become swollen and distorted forming a simple prosoplasmic gall. Larval feeding induces the bases of the involucral bracts to expand laterally causing the maturing flower head to become button shaped. The larvae consume tissues of developing florets and receptacle, and prevent the flower head from opening. Host damage by T. dilacerata and the use of gall formers in the biological control of weeds are discussed.