The systems integration problem

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Abstract
The systems integration problem, defined as coupling GIS and other systems, is analysed by the use of two models based on database and federated database reference models. A three-schema model of a system enables the classification of incompatibilities between systems in terms of differences in external, conceptual and internal schemas. A systems reference model identifies transformation, constructor and accessor operations as the basic mechanisms to overcome these differences. The possible architectures of integrated systems are defined in terms of the presence of these operations and their general strengths and weaknesses are assessed.