Efficacy and mechanisms of action of sodium hypochlorite on Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 phage F116

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Abstract
The Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 phage F116 was used to investigate the viricidal activity and the mechanism of action of sodium hypochlorite. The bacteriophage was inactivated with a low concentration (0.0005% available chlorine) of the biocide prepared in tap water but it was less sensitive to a sodium hypochlorite solution prepared in ultra-pure water (0.0075% available chlorine). For all the effective concentrations of sodium hypochlorite (i.e. producing at least 4 log reduction in phage titre), F116 was readily inactivated within 30 s. Electron microscopical investigations of the phage particles challenged with sodium hypochlorite showed a wide variety of deleterious effects, some of which have not been previously observed with other biocides. The wide range of structural alterations observed suggested that sodium hypochlorite has multiple target sites against F116 bacteriophage. A 30 s exposure to sodium hypochlorite (0.001% available chlorine) produced severe damage, the number and severity of which increased with a higher concentration (0.0075% available chlorine) and with a longer contact time. These observations suggested that sodium hypochlorite inactivated F116 bacteriophage by causing structural alterations to the phage head, tail and overall structure, hence possibly releasing the viral genome from damaged capsids in the surrounding media.