Abstract
The struggle to achieve equal rights for American blacks has included legal and social pressure to provide access to jobs, housing, education, the ballot box, theaters, buses, hotels, and restaurants. Within the medical establishment, there has been a parallel effort to integrate the patient care areas and medical staffs of hospitals, provide equal access to medical and nursing education, and end racial segregation in state medical societies.1 , 2 In 1960, blacks made up 2.2 percent of all U.S. physicians.3 , 4 Most received their education at predominantly black medical schools; their opportunities were very limited after graduation as compared with those of their . . .

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