Genetic perspectives on invasions: the case of the Cladocera

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Abstract
Using freshwater cladocerans as an example, this paper explores the contributions that genetic analyses are making to the field of invasion biology. Most importantly, this approach enables a quantification of the incidence of both recent and past invasions. By determining genetic divergence between European and North American lineages of cladocerans, it is possible to estimate the natural incidence of past exchange between these continents. The results of this analysis establish that the current pace of species invasions is extraordinary; present rates are nearly 50 000 times higher than historical levels. Genetic studies can also exploit molecular markers to localize the points of origin of invaders. Finally, genetic studies are poised to play an important role in monitoring invasions; the DNA bar-coding of life is now simple and rapid enough to enable the development of molecular identification systems.