Sound Production in Vertebrates: Summary and Prospectus

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Abstract
Sound as a communicating medium has been utilized by at least five classes of vertebrates. Non-vocal sounds have developed independently, involve many different parts of the body, and show no particular pattern of structure or function. The main source of sound production in tetrapods is related to modifications of the respiratory system. The larynx develops as a sound producer in amphibians, and is used by reptiles and mammals. The glottis functions as a valve regulating air flow. Vocal folds or cords function in sound formation in some amphibians and mammals. The voice-producing syrinx of birds is analogous, and shows adaptive radiaition within the class, while the larynx remains simple. Other accessory structures and cavities appear to be of independent origin in tetrapods. The central nervous nuclei show parallels between fish and tetrapods, and the peripheral nerves seem to be fairly constant to the vocal muscles. Some possible experimental studies are suggested to complete a study of the vocal apparatus.

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