Gravitational stress and volume regulation

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Abstract
During the past 3 decades, groundbased experiments have been performed in order to investigate the effects of increased and decreased gravitational stress, respectively, on the renal response in humans. Experiments that simulate an increase in gravitational load (+Gz) to the subjects (centrifugation, passive head-up titlt [HUT] or lower body negative pressure [LBNP] have clearly demonstrated a decrease in renal sodium and water excretion. Simultaneously, increases in plasma levels of arginine vasopressin (AVP), renin activity (PRA), aldosterone (PA), norepinephrine (NE) and decreases in ANP have been observed. Additionally, experiments that have utilized immersion of seated subjects to simulate a decreased gravitational stress (approximately 0 Gz) have demonstrated that renal water and sodium excretion increases by 100-400% and that plasma AVP, PRA, PA, and NE concentrations are reduced and ANP levels increased. Alternative experimental models conducted to simulate the effects of weightlessness in humans such as head-down tilt (HDT) and lower body positive pressure (LBPP) have yielded less consistent results than those of water immersion (WI) with respect to renal function. However, compared to a seated control HDT clearly induces an increased rate of renal fluid and sodium excretion. The demonstration that central volume expansion during WI is accompanied by an increase in renal fluid and electrolyte excretion and that central hypovolaemia during centrifugation, HUT, and LBNP is accompanied by the opposite effects indicate that changes in central blood volume is an important determinant of the renal functional changes. Results of experiments in humans during weightlessness in space are inconsistent and difficult to interpret. However, they have indicated that a cephalad redistribution of blood and fluid occurs and that this is accompanied by a decrease in total body fluid. Experimental models that, respectively, increase and decrease the gravitational stress in humans constitute promising tools in the investigation of the physiology and pathophysiology of volume regulation.