Human psychobiology in Scandinavia: II. Psychoneuroendocrinology—human stress and coping processes

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Abstract
This paper reviews psychoneuroendocrine research on stress and coping in Scandinavia during the last two decades. Two laboratories in Stockholm, led by Marianne Frankenhaeuser and Lennart Levi, respectively, have played a particularly important role for the development of this research area, where interest is concentrated on two neuroendocrine systems, the sympathetic‐adrenal medullary and the pituitary‐adrenal cortical systems. Stress research in Scandinavia first followed the pioneering work by Cannon and focussed on the adrenal medullary system and the secretion of the two catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline. The adrenal cortical system and the secretion of the corticosteroids (cortisol), which is the basis of Selye's formulations on stress and the “general adaptation syndrom”, has been studied too, during the last 10 years. During the 1960's, pharmacological experiments were performed in order to explore the relation between psychological and physiological arousal. Psychophysiological arousal was related to performance efficiency, subjective well‐being, and social adjustment. In the beginning of the 1970's systematic relationships were demonstrated between psychosocial stimulation and neuroendocrine activity. Later, the modifying influence of cognitive factors on these relationships was examined in experimental studies performed in the laboratory as well as in natural settings. The results were fitted into theoretical models, describing the possible mechanisms involved in the relationship between psychosocial stress, psychoneuroendocrine response patterns and mental and physical health. During the last decade, parallel research has been carried out in the laboratory and in real life situations. A specific Scandinavian contribution has been the combination of social psychological and psychobiological strategies in the examination of stress at the work place. Another major line of research has been the study of sex differences in psychobiological stress responses.