Valproic acid induced abnormal development of the central nervous system of three species of amphibians: Implications for neural tube defects and alternative experimental systems

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Abstract
Embryos of Ambystoma mexicanum, Xenopus laevis, and Hyperolius viridiflavus taeniatus were exposed to various concentrations of valproic acid (VPA: 0.1, 1, 5, 10 mM) from blastula stage (S) 9 on up to advanced gastrulation of control embryos (S 11 1/2–12). At 10 and 5 mM VPA early development was affected in all species tested. However, the most pronounced effects occurred in Ambystoma: the neural folds appeared delayed and showed a flattened and wavy shape; the neural tube was not formed and embryos successively died. In Xenopus and Hyperolius (10, 5 mM VPA) the beginning of gastrulation was delayed up to neurulation of control embryos. In Xenopus many of the embryos completed neurulation, whereas some embryos exposed to 10 mM VPA showed neural tube defects (NTDs) of different type and degree (open neural tube at different regions of the dorsum). In Hyperolius neural folds arose around the blastoporus and fused later on (earlier in embryos treated with 5 mM VPA), but the shape of these embryos was abnormal and the development was not continued (pronounced effect at 10 mM VPA). Comparing the three species, Xenopus proved to be the least sensitive species (at 5 mM VPA 14.2% NTDs of total malformations compared to 100% in the other species). The most sensitive species, Ambystoma, developed head‐oedema at 1 mM VPA, whereas the anurans were not affected. Our results suggest a similar mechanism of VPA‐induced NTDs in mammals and amphibians.