Thermometry below 1 K

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Abstract
This paper reviews the current status of thermometry below 1 K from a metrological point of view. It emphasizes the relation to thermodynamic temperature without completely ignoring practical questions. Thus principles and limitations are discussed in detail for primary thermometers as well as for those secondary thermometers that can be employed to extend the temperature range by extrapolation. Practical thermometry is covered in a few instructive examples which illustrate the effects of experimental problems on temperature measurement. A considerable fraction of the paper is devoted to temperature reference standards, and the actual state of their underlying scales, that are used to reproduce accurately temperature values for calibration of secondary thermometers without running primary thermometers.