Early warning in the predation sequence: A disturbance pheromone in Iowa darters (Etheostoma exile)

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Abstract
The probability of prey avoiding a predator's attack should increase if the predator's presence is detected at an early stage in the predation sequence. In this study, we tested whether threatened Iowa darters (Etheostoma exile) release disturbance pheromones that warn conspecifics of the presence of predation threat. Pairs of aquaria were visually isolated from one another, but connected chemically by water circulating between them. Darters in one aquarium were observed before and after darters in the other aquarium were chased with a model predator. In control tests, the model was moved in the same manner but there were no darters in the upstream tank. Darters receiving water from threatened fish increased vigilance behavior and decreased movement. Vigilant fish raised their head above the substratum, propping themselves up on their pectoral fins and/or arching their neck dorsally, pointing the snout upward. Exposure to water from disturbed darters suppressed exploratory behavior and resulted in movement by short rapid hops that ended abruptly in a rigid, alert posture. This study suggests that Iowa darters release a disturbance pheromone that can provide conspecifics with an early warning of predation risk.