Hilltopping in the Nymphalid Butterfly Chlosyne californica (Lepidoptera)

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Abstract
During a 2-mo. spring flight season, males of the butterfly C. californica perch in and defend open areas of .apprx. 5-10 m2 near prominent palo verdes on ridgetops in the Sonoran Desert. Some males return to defend the same territory several days in a row, each day repelling an average of 3-4 intruders over the 1st 2 hr of the daily flight period. Females fly to ridgetop territories where they are pursued and mated by resident males. Many aspects of the behavior of this species are convergent with other unrelated territorial hilltopping insects. Not all hilltopping butterfly species are territorial and differences in population densities may play a role in the evolution of behavioral diversity within this group.