Evolution of the feeding mechanism in primitive actionopterygian fishes: A functional anatomical analysis of Polypterus, Lepisosteus, and Amia

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Abstract
The comparative functional anatomy of feeding in Polypterus senegalus, Lepisosteus oculatus, and Amia calva, three primitive actinopterygian fishes, was studied by high‐speed cinematography (200 frames per second) synchronized with electromyographic recordings of cranial muscle activity. Several characters of the feeding mechanism have been identified as primitive for actinopterygian fishes: (1) Mandibular depression is mediated by the sternohyoideus muscle via the hyoid apparatus and mandibulohyoid ligament. (2) The obliquus inferioris and sternohyoideus muscles exhibit synchronous activity at the onset of the expansive phase of jaw movement. (3) Activity in the adductor operculi occurs in a double burst pattern—an initial burst at the onset of the expansive phase, followed by a burst after the jaws have closed. (4) A median septum divides the sternohyoideus muscle into right and left halves which are asymmetrically active during chewing and manipulation of prey. (5) Peak hyoid depression occurs only after peak gape has been reached and the hyoid apparatus remains depressed after the jaws have closed. (6) The neurocranium is elevated by the epaxial muscles during the expansive phase. (7) The adductor mandibulae complex is divided into three major sections—an anterior (suborbital) division, a medial division, and a posterolateral division.In Polypterus, the initial strike lasts from 60 to 125 msec, and no temporal overlap in muscle activity occurs between muscles active at the onset of the expansive phase (sternohyoideus, obliquus superioris, epaxial muscles) and the jaw adductors of the compressive phase. In Lepisosteus, the strike is extremely rapid, often occuring in as little as 20 msec. All cranial muscles become active within 10 msec of each other, and there is extensive overlap in muscle activity periods.Two biomechanically independent mechanisms mediate mandibular depression in Amia, and this duality in mouth‐opening couplings is a shared feature of the halecostome fishes. Mandibular depression by hyoid retraction, and intermandibular musculature, consisting of an intermandibularis posterior and interhyoideus, are hypothesized to be primitive for the Teleostomi.