Antipredator Defenses and the Persistence of Amphibian Larvae With Fishes

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Abstract
Communities of larval amphibians in fishless habitats often differ strikingly from those in habitats with fish. We surveyed larvae of 15 amphibian species to determine if presence or absence of specific defenses against fish was correlated with breeding habitat. Each species was tested for two key defenses: unpalatability and chemically mediated predator avoidance. In eight of nine cases, larvae of species that often encounter fish had at least one of these defenses. In contrast, larvae of seven species that breed in fishless pools consistently lacked defenses against fish. Lack of appropriate defenses appeared to be a primary reason why temporary pool species cannot successfully coexist with predatory fishes in permanent habitats. Palatability and responses to chemical cues from fish often differed among closely related taxa and were correlated strongly with frequency of encounter with fish. Thus, natural selection rather than phylogeny best explains interspecific variation in antipredator defenses. Our data show that members of at least two orders and four families of amphibians use chemical cues to reduce predation risk from predatory fish.