In situ characterization of electrode–electrolyte interfaces using spectroscopic techniques

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Abstract
A review of ultraviolet/visible, infra‐red and Raman spectroscopic techniques (excluding ellipsometry), applied to the in situ characterization of immersed electrodes is presented. Literature reports involving transmission and internal reflectance at optically transparent electrodes, and also external specular reflectance at planer electrodes both in the visible and in the infra‐red spectral regions are described. Rman techniques covered include not only recent developments in surface‐enhanced Raman scattering but also unenhanced Raman scattering, resonance Raman scattering and other non‐linear processes. Specialized instrumentation requirements are discussed and experimental methodology relevant to the characterization of electrochemical systems is outlined. The report concludes by highlighting the advantages and limitations of the various in situ spectroscopic techniques indicating likely areas of development in the future.