A Review of Social Behavior of the North American Cervids during the Reproductive Period

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Abstract
A comparative study was made of the social behavior during the reproductive period of the genera Rangifer, Cervus Alces and Odocoileus in North America. The social organization and gregariousness of various species are outlined. Rutting behavior consists of antler rubbing and thrashing, the construction of rutting pits and wallows, rubbing of tarsal glands, and vocalization among males. Patterns of aggression and courtship behavior are discussed. The mating behavior of the various species is compared. Various aspects of maternal behavior, including parturition, nursing and grooming, hiding of the young, and the heeling, integration and early development of the young are discussed. Brief reference is made to vocalization and signals between mothers and their offspring and defense of the young by their mothers.