Amputees and phantom limb pain: A literature review

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Abstract
The nature and defining characteristics of the phantom limb phenomenon and of phantom limb pain (PLP) are examined. The physical and socio-psychological factors that predispose to the appearance of PLP are described and evaluated. A critical evaluation of the peripheral, central and psychological theories attempting to explain the mechanisms of PLP indicates their inadequacies and suggests the necessity of a multi-dimensional approach to this issue. The effectiveness and efficiency of the treatment procedures that have been used in the past or are in current practice (surgical, electrical stimulation, psychological/psychiatric) are reviewed and it is suggested that non-invasive techniques should be used primarily, prior to any surgical procedures being applied. Recommendations for a multi-disciplinary approach to this problem and for further research on PLP are also included.

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