Structural alterations in embryos and alevins of the Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., induced by continuous or short-term exposure to acidic levels of pH

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Abstract
Embryos of the Atlantic salmon, S. salar L., were incubated continuously from fertilization, at pH 6.8 (control), 5.0, 4.5, 4.3, 4.0 and 3.7, at 5-6.degree. C. The subsequent alevins in these environments were maintained at these levels for 40 days after hatching. Generally, lethal and sublethal injuries were separable only as to degree and distribution. Sublethal alterations occurred in the integument, gill, blood and blood vascular structures of all live alevins incubated at pH 5.0 and lower. At pH 4.5 and lower injuries also occurred in brain, optic retina, kidney and spleen. Some tissue regeneration occurred in the embryonal rudimentary integument at pH 4.5 and lower. Regeneration also occurred but to a lesser degree in pseudobranch, kidney, spleen and erythrocytes. Injury of the integument was the apparent cause of death in prehatching embryos since it is the major site of respiration and ion exchange. As gills expand in posthatching alevins, they assume these function and destruction of branchial epithelium then becomes the prime cause of death. The nature of cell injury and consequent dysgenesis at tissue and organ levels are not ascribable uniquely to acidic stress. Some injuries are similar to those caused variously by heavy metals, detergents, halogenated organic compounds, some petroleum fractions and chronic and acute high temperature in postalevin stages of several fish species.