Psychological and Biological Perspectives on Altruism

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Abstract
This paper presents the case for viewing altruism as an inherent part of human nature. The argument is first made that 'inclusive fitness', the key concept in modern evolutionary biology, dictates that (a) humans are programmed not only to be egoistic but also, under certain conditions, to help another at cost to themselves; and (b) what was selected was not altruistic action but mediators of action, because this provided the necessary flexibility. Psychological evidence is then presented that complements this view. Thus (a) there appears to a general human tendency to help others in distress, which has properties analagous to egoistic motivation and yet comes into play independently of egoistic motivation; and (b) the evolutionary requirements for a mediating mechanism appear to be met by empathy, e.g., it is reliably aroused in humans in response to misfortune in others, it predisposes the individual toward helping action and yet is amenable to perceptual and cognitive control, and its physiological basis may have been present in early humans. The social implications of a biological basis for human altruism are discussed.

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