Hypolimnetic Anoxia and Sediment Oxygen Demand in California Drinking Water Reservoirs

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Abstract
Summertime hypolimnetic anoxia can occur in productive drinking water reservoirs as a result of the decay of phytoplankton. Anoxic conditions promote ecological processes that degrade water quality through the release of problem-causing compounds from anoxic sediments including phosphates, ammonia, sulfides, methyl-mercury, iron and manganese. Hypolimnetic aeration systems are commonly installed in reservoirs to prevent hypolimnetic anoxia, but these systems have been historically undersized due to an underestimation of the magnitude of oxygen demand in the hypolimnion. To gain insight into the sizing of hypolimnetic aeration systems, this study evaluated the effects of water current and DO concentration near the sediment-water interface on sediment oxygen demand (SOD) in nine California drinking water reservoirs of various size (5–220 million m3) and trophic status (mean annual chlorophyll a of 0.5–11 μg L−1). SOD measured under quiescent conditions in 1.8 L experimental chambers ranged from 0.1–0.8 g m2 d1 Currents near the sediment-water interface of 3–8 cm s1 induced a two to four-fold increase in SOD, and resulted in a shift from first-order to zero-order DO uptake by sediment with respect to DO concentration in overlaying water. Results support the diffusive boundary layer model for SOD, with increased DO concentration and currents resulting in a larger SOD since there is a greater diffusional driving force across a smaller diffusive boundary layer. The study also evaluated the effects of trophic status and morphometry on hypolimnetic anoxia at the nine study sites. A number of significant correlations were discovered between factor quantifying hypolimnetic anoxia (areal and mass based hypolimnetic oxygen demand, SOD) and those quantifying morphometry (mean depth of the hypolimnion, volume of the hypolimnion) and trophic status (mean annual chlorophyll a). These results suggest that both increased size of the hypolimnion and higher productivity lead to higher oxygen demand within the hypolimnion. In addition, shallower reservoirs had a larger fraction of their total oxygen demand exerted in the sediments versus the water column. As a result, increased mixing at the sediment-water interface after start-up of aeration systems, and the resulting stimulation of SOD, will be particularly important in productive reservoirs of moderate depth (mean depth of 10–15 m). Aeration systems should be designed to enhance SOD by maintaining high oxygen concentrations and by inducing currents at the sediment-water interface. This will increase the depth of penetration of DO into sediment and promote beneficial aerobic biogeochemical reactions in surface sediments. Aeration systems that utilize pure-oxygen with horizontal discharge of highly oxygenated water across the sediment surface, rather than the traditional air-lift aeration system, will be more successful in satisfying SOD and improving hypolimnetic water quality.

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