Endocrine peptides 'moonlighting' as immune modulators: roles for somatostatin and GH-releasing factor

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Abstract
Introduction Somatostatin (SRIF) and growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF) are well characterized as hypothalamic neuropeptides which, respectively, inhibit and stimulate the secretion of growth hormone (GH). SRIF is also produced by pancreatic D cells and cells within the gut, where it can act to regulate pancreatic and gastrointestinal hormone secretion. A number of laboratories have demonstrated that the synthesis, receptors and endocrine activities of GRF and SRIF may be influenced by immune factors, such as the cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1) (Scarborough et al. 1989, Lumpkin 1990, Campbell et al. 1991b, Honegger et al. 1991, Payne et al. 1992, Peisen et al. 1992, 1994), IL-2 (Karanth et al. 1992), IL-6 (Spangelo et al. 1989) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (Scarborough & Dinarello 1989, Walton & Cronin 1989, Gaillard et al. 1990, Elsasser et al. 1991) as well as lipopolysaccharide endotoxin (LPS), an inducer of cytokines (Kasting & Martin 1982, Yelich et al. 1993).

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