Orientation and spatial representation within multiple frames of reference

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Abstract
The maintenance of orientation while walking through an unfamiliar route within a larger familiar environment was investigated by having subjects [human] count backwards while walking, instructing others to attend to orientation and giving no instructions to a 3rd group. Instructions made no difference to accuracy of location of landmarks, but backwards counting led to larger increases in error. After counting, some subjects were able to recognized the shape of a simple route although they could not use this information to help them orient. The results are interpreted in terms of the use of different frames of reference while constructing a representation of a new space, and it is suggested that normal orientation within complex real-world environments may not be best understood by studying performance in artificial mazes or by limiting the frames of reference which can be used.

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