Outcome Controllability and Counterfactual Thinking

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Abstract
The impact of outcome controllability on the direction of counterfactual thoughts (reconstructions of past outcomes based on "might have been"alternatives) was examined in two laboratory experiments. Counterfactual direction reflects the distinction between upward counterfactuals (focusing on how things could have been better) and downward counterfactuals (focusing on how things could have been worse). Previous research has shown that upward counterfactuals are more frequent after failure, even though consideration of downward counterfactuals is affectively self-enhancing. Two studies showed that outcome controllability affects counterfactual direction: Upward counterfactuals were more frequent following controllable outcomes, whereas downward counterfactuals were more frequent following uncontrollable outcomes. Paralleling past research, upward counterfactuals were more frequent after failure, whereas downward counterfactuals were more frequent after success. These findings are consistent with an emerging functional theory of counterfactual thinking.

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