THE CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE: Uremia‐Related Metabolic Cardiac Risk Factors in Chronic Kidney Disease

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Abstract
Growing evidence has been gathered over the last 15 years regarding the role of nontraditional or uremia-related risk factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in subjects with renal failure. Among those factors, dyslipidemia, inflammation, hyperhomocysteinemia, and oxidant stress have been extensively studied. However, the clinical significance of many of these factors remains controversial in light of reported studies. In this article, the existing evidence regarding the role of uremia-related risk factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis is reviewed, with special emphasis on prevalence, cardiac risk, and management in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Consensus treatment recommendations are provided for risk factors for which there is evidence to support preventive or therapeutic interventions.