Modulation of Calcium Oxalate Monohydrate Crystallization by Citrate through Selective Binding to Atomic Steps

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Abstract
The majority of human kidney stones are composed primarily of calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) crystals. Thus, determining the molecular modulation of COM crystallization by urinary constituents is crucial for understanding and controlling renal stone disease. A comprehensive molecular-scale view of COM shape modification by citrate, obtained through a combination of in situ atomic force microscopy and molecular modeling, is presented here. We find that while the most important factors determining binding strength are coordination between COO- groups on citrate and Ca ions in the lattice, as well as H-bonds formed between the OH group of citrate and an oxalate group, the nonplanar geometry of the steps provides the most favorable environment due to the ability of the step-edge to accommodate all Ca−COO- coordinations with minimal strain. However, binding to all steps and terraces on the (010) face is much less favorable than on the (1̄01) face due to electrostatic repulsion between oxalate and COO- groups. For example, the maximum binding energy, −166.5 kJ mol-1, occurs for the [101] step on the (1̄01) face, while the value for the [021] step on the (010) face is only −56.9 kJ mol-1. This high selectivity leads to preferential binding to steps on the (1̄01) face that pins step motion. Yet anisotropy in interaction strength on this face drives anisotropic changes in step kinetics that are responsible for shape modification of macroscopic COM crystals. Thus, the molecular scale growth kinetics and the bulk crystal habit are fully consistent with the simulations.