Inotropic therapy of the failing myocardium

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Abstract
The clinical syndrome of congestive heart failure remains a therapeutic dilemma and challenge for the physician in 1992. This is a disease process that appears to be increasing in frequency and continues to carry an unacceptably high mortality rate. For years it has been well recognized that the combination of digoxin, Lasix and vasodilator therapy improved symptoms in these patients and decreased hospitalization, but did not increase survival. It was not until 1986 that the combination of digoxin, Lasix, Isordil, and hydralazine was shown to increase survival. Further significant improvement in quality of life and survival has recently been established in three large clinical trials, and it is now safe to say that the standard of care for symptomatic congestive heart failure in 1992 is digoxin, furosemide, and an ACE inhibitor, with the survival trials favoring the ACE inhibitor enalapril. The IV inotropic drug dobutamine remains the mainstay of pharmacological therapy for the treatment of severely refractory heart failure. Unfortunately, the phosphodiesterase inhibitors—amrinone, milrinone, and enoximone—have demonstrated unacceptable clinical side effects and have been withdrawn from further clinical study. In spite of these promising developments, the mortality and morbidity of congestive heart failure remains unacceptably high, and continued investigation in the new fields of pharmacology and the pathophysiology of congestive heart failure still must be aggressively pursued.