Genetic Variation, Population Structure, and Evolution of California Quail

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Abstract
We studied the genetic population structure of California Quail (Callipepla californica). This relatively sedentary gallinaceous species has differentiated geographically in ecological features and morphology. In California [USA] and Baja California [Mexico], we obtained samples of quail (101 total birds) from a total of seven sites representing six of the eight recognized subspecies. We analyzed genetic variation at 37 protein-coding loci using starch gel electrophoresis. Levels of within population genetic variation, such as average heterozygosity per individual (3.2%), percentage of loci polymorphic (18.1%), and mean number of alleles per locus (1.32), are similar to values reported for other birds, both passerines and nonpasserines. Genotypic distributions did not differ significantly from Hardy-Weinberg expectations. Geographic partitioning of genetic variation was slight. FST (3.2%) and pairwise genetic distances among samples (.hivin.D = 0.005) indicated little among-sample divergence, although statistically significant geographic heterogeneity was detected at four loci. Using Slatkin''s (1985a) method to estimate levels of gene flow, our data indicated that populations receive an average of 5.5 immigrants per generation. A UPGMA phenogram and a distance Wagner network indicated the existence of two weakly differentiated groups of samples, corresponding roughly to Baja California and California. However, a sample from California (Tule Lake) is genetically more similar to samples from Baja California than to its nearest geographic neighbors. We hypothesize that California Quail Dispersed southward into Baja California subsequent to its junction three to five million years ago with southern California.