Increased meal frequency associated with decreased cholesterol concentrations; Rancho Bernardo, CA, 1984–1987

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Abstract
The hypothesis that meal frequency is associated with plasma cholesterol was tested in a population-based sample of 2034 white men and women aged 50–89 y. Total, low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density-lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and triglycerides were measured after a 12-h fast in a Lipid Research Clinic laboratory and meal frequency was obtained by questionnaire. The age-adjusted total cholesterol concentrations for men and women reporting ≥ 4 meals/d averaged 0.23 mmol/L lower than for those who reported 1–2 meals/d (P = 0.01). Similarly, LDL concentrations were lower in those reporting higher meal frequency (0.16 mmol/L, P = 0.06). These associations persisted after adjustment for smoking, alcohol, waist-to-hip ratio, systolic blood pressure, body mass index, and dietary nutrients. These results suggest that cholesterol reductions might be achieved by modest increases in meal frequency without an increase in caloric intake.