The role of crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) in the adaptation of plants to salinity*

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Abstract
Two case studies are presented illustrating how the behaviour of plants using crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) provides adaptation to salinity. Perennial cacti having constitutive CAM show adaptation at the whole‐plant level, engaging regulation of stomata, internal CO2‐recycling and root physiology with salt exclusion. They are stress avoiders. Annual plants such as Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, with inducible CAM, are salt includers. They are stress‐tolerant and show reactions at an array of levels: (i) regulation of turgor and gas exchange at the whole‐plant level; (ii) metabolic adjustments at the cellular level; (iii) adapptive transport proteins at the membrane level and also (iv) at the macromolecular level; and (v) inductive changes at the gene expression level of the enzyme complement for metabolism (in particular involving glycolysis and malic‐acid synthesis with phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) as the key enzyme, and gluconeogenesis (with pyruvate–phosphate dikinase (PPDK) as a key enzyme) and membrane transport (in particular involving the tonoplast ATPase).