Destructive Exploitation of the South American River Turtle

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Destructive Exploitation of the South American River Turtle Nigel J. H. Smith* THE WORLD'S largest freshwater turtle, Podocnemis expansa , has long served as an important food resource for Indians and Mestizos of the Amazon and Orinoco basins ( Figure 1). Although widely distributed through tropical South America, this turtle, along with its marine relatives, is now a threatened species as a consequence of overexploitation for both meat and eggs (Parsons ) . Tertiary fossil records place Podocnemis in Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas. Today, however, perhaps due to the expansion of the ecologically more competitive cryptodire turtles, the genus survives only in isolated Madagascar (P. madagascariensis ) and in South America (Figure 2), the latter an island continent for most of the Tertiary ( Neill). Of the seven species inhabiting the Neo-tropics, Podocnemis expansa is the largest, its carapace reaching up to 3 feet in length. Other species such as P. unifilis, P. dumeriliana, and P. caijennensis have figured less prominently in the regional diet due to their smaller size or more restricted range. History of Exploitation The aboriginal population of Amazonia, recognizing the food value of these 150-pound reptiles, penned them for yearround cropping. Orellana's hunger-plagued expedition down° Mr. Smith is a graduate student in Geography at the University of California, Berkeley 94720. Field work was conducted in South America under grants from the Center for Latin American Studies and during the summers of 1970, 1971, and 1972. Doctors R. Honegger, F. Medem, J. Parsons, H. Sternberg, and P. Vanzolini read the manuscript and -made valuable criticisms and suggestions. 85 86ASSOCIATION OF PACIFIC COAST GEOGRAPHERS Figure 1. Podocnemis expansa. the Amazon in 1542 was relieved to find a village with more than a thousand turtles in flooded enclosures and wells ( Medina). A century later along the same river, Acuña reported that there was hardly a village containing fewer than a hundred corraled turtles and that the natives were thus ignorant of hunger. Tribes of the Amazon and Orinoco made yearly pilgrimages during dry seasons to collect thousands of Podocnemis1 which had finished laying on selected sandy beaches exposed by low water. Amerinds also probed the sand with sticks for nest cavities which, upon discovery, were dug up and the eggs dried over fires on wooden platforms (Gumilla). Loaded with 1 Here and in the remainder of this paper, the generic name is used to designate the one species, Podocnemis expansa. This turtle in Brazil was formerly called jurararetê or jurara-açu, but is now known as tartaruga . It is also known as charapa in Peru and arrau in Venezuela. ß?· 70° ß?» JL I I 50°40» DISTRIBUTION of PODOCNEMIS EXPANSA and Ite utilization by Amerinds L . Valencia ᣠW O O < O r e: w ? as CD if». OO -1 Figure 2. Rivers of South America in relation to P. expansa. The numbered Amerind tribes are identified in Table 1. 88 ASSOCIATION OF PACIFIC COAST GEOGRAPHERS Table 1. Sampled Tribes Using Podocnemis Expansa1 Tribal number (Fig. 2)Tribe Use of Podocnemis Source 1 Paumari (Aruak) 2 Xiriâna (Aruak) 3 Moré (Chapacuran) 4 Karajá 5 Arara (Karib) 6 Atruahí (Karib) 7 Kaxuiana (Karib) 8 Pakidái (Karib) 9 Mura 10Conibo (Panoan) 11Mayorana (Panoan) 12Shipibo (Panoan) 13Yamiaca (Panoan) 14Cavina (Tacanan) 15Tumpasa (Tacanan) 16Amanayé (Tupi) 17Assuriní (Tupi) Swam down to 30 feet to catch turtles by hand Collected turtles and their eggs during dry season Turtle eggs an important food item in September and October Turtle eggs significant food item during dry season When the tribe first appeared on the Tocantins, turtles formed their only medium of exchange Descend rivers Camananau and Curiuaú in dry season to gather turtles and their eggs Formerly collected the turtles and eggs Collected turtles and their eggs during the dry season Turtles a basic staple; caught by hand and harpoon . Ate a ragout of banana and turtle eggs; traded turtle oil with missionaries Hunted turtles with harpoons , bows and arrows; also corraled them Ate great numbers of boiled turtlings; also traded turtle fat Collected turtle eggs In mythology, a huge spiritturtle protects its species In mythology, a huge spiritturtle protects its species Turtles abundant and kept in corrals Formerly collected turtle eggs during the dry season Coutinho, p. 160 Costa Metraux, p. 399 Lipkind Nimuendaju Costa Frikel Costa Bates, Vol. 1, p. 328 Saint Cricq, pp. 9, 40 Osculati Saint Cricq, pp. 60, 67 Metraux, p. 453 Metraux, p. 448 Metraux, p. 448 Nimuendaju and Metraux Firmo YEARBOOK VOLUME 36 1974 89 Table 1. Sampled Tribes Using Podocnemis Expansa1 (Continued) Tribal number (Fig. 2) Tribe Use of Podocnemis Source 18 Cocama (Tupi) 19Kuruáya (Tupi) 20Mawé (Tupi) 21Mundurukú (Tupi) 22Omagua (Tupi) 23Tapirapé (Tupi) 24Witóto 25Guamos 26Otomacs 27Piaora 28Tapajó 29Tribes of the Upper Xingu Hunted turtles with harpoons , bows and arrows; also corraled them. Traded turtle oil Turtle a major food item Hunt turtles year-round Capture turtles whenever encountered during fishing trips Hunted turtles with harpoons , bows and arrows; also corraled them. Traded turtle oil Killed turtles in rivers and collected their eggs Captured turtles by flipping them over on their backs during the nesting season; also collected eggs Made yearly trips to the Orinoco to harvest the eggs Made yearly trips to the Orinoco to harvest the eggs Formerly had to kill great numbers of crocodiles to harvest the turtle eggs safely Made clay lamps fashioned after the turtle Turtle eggs furnish a basic staple during the dry season Metraux, p. 692 Nimuendaju Firmo Firmo Metraux, p. 692 Wagley and Galväo Whiffen Humboldt, p. 184 Humboldt, p. 184 Roze, p. 40 Barata Carvalho 1 Corresponding to...

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