Men and Women toward the Top: Backgrounds, Careers, and Potential of Federal Middle Managers

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Abstract
Using a variety of data sources, this article compares the earnings, occupations, educations, mobility, handling of subordinates, interactions with supervisors, job satisfaction, and rates of promotion and turnover of men and women in middle-management positions in the federal civil service. Management of problem employees does not differ significantly between the sexes, but women have more problems with their own supervisors than do men. Overall, women are as satisfied as men with the fairness of their treatment, but the women are much more likely to say they have recently lost a job or job reward due to discrimination or a “buddy system.”

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