Confounding and Simpson's paradox

Abstract
Charig et al undertook a historical comparison of success rates in removing kidney stones.2 Open surgery (1972-80) had a success rate of 78% (273/350) while percutaneous nephrolithotomy (1980-5) had a success rate of 83% (289/350), an improvement over the use of open surgery. However, the success rates looked rather different when stone diameter was taken into account. This showed that, for stones of /=2 cm, success rates of 73% (192/263) and 69% (55/80) were observed for open surgery and percutaneous nephrolithotomy respectively.