Sorting Strings by Reversals and by Transpositions

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Abstract
The problems of sorting by reversals and sorting by transpositions have been studied because of their applications to genome comparison. Prior studies of both problems have assumed that the sequences to be compared (or sorted) contain no duplicates, but there is a natural generalization in which the sequences are allowed to contain repeated characters. In this paper we study primarily the versions of these problems in which the strings to be compared are drawn from a binary alphabet. We obtain upper and lower bounds for reversal and transposition distance and show that the problem of finding reversal distance between binary strings, and therefore between strings over an arbitrary fixed-size alphabet, is NP-hard.

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