Spacing and Three-bird Flights of mallards breeding in pothole habitat

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Abstract
Wild mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) were observed in pothole habitat near Minnedosa, Manitoba. The breeding mallards behaved territorially: both members of a pair were attached to a fixed area, and males were aggressive toward intruding females and pairs. Territorial behaviour was most pronounced during a brief period (13–22 days) from just prior to laying until early incubation. The most frequently observed aggressive behaviour pattern was the Three-bird Flight which effectively expelled intruders from the territory. The behaviour of birds in one area where density was artificially increased through the release of hand-reared birds of wild stock was compared with that of mallards under natural conditions. Under higher population density, pairs occupied smaller territories, the frequency of Three-bird Flights was reduced, and the average length and number of participants in each pursuit was reduced. Territorial behaviour in mallards appears to have evolved because of advantages to the male in preventing cuckoldry by defending his mate from males intent on forced copulation, alerting her to the presence of predators, and in allowing her to feed with a minimum of interruption during this period when she has special nutrient requirements. Three-bird Flights do not appear to be strictly territorial. Males appear to employ a mixed reproductive strategy whereby they defend their mates and also seek to inseminate females other than their mates.

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