Predation, cover, and convergent evolution in epipelagic oceans

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Abstract
The factor of most importance to the structure of epipelagic oceanic communities is the absence of cover and the inability to hide from predators in surface waters during the day (Elton, 1939). Visual predation in an environment devoid of cover has resulted in convergent evolution into only six modal adaptive patterns. Large, fast, visual predators roam the water, 1) alone or in 2) schools, and they eat anything of appropriate size that they see. Prey escape only by dint of 3) very small size, 4) invisibility due to tissue transparency, 5) diurnal vertical migration, or by 6) exploitation of the sea surface. The sensory ecology and physiology of zooplankton are different from that of all other animal categories in all other habitats. Epipelagic zooplankton are either extremely small animals, with small and structurally simple sense organs, or they are large, with gelatinous, transparent bodies which often lack sense organs.