Regulation of the Calcium Signal by Calmodulin

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Abstract
Stimulus–response coupling mediated by calmodulin involves several steps: (1) a transitory increase in calcium concentration from 0.1 to 10 µM, induced by external stimuli; (2) interaction of calcium with calmodulin, accompanied by stepwise structural transitions; (3) the coordinated interaction with and activation of the many calmodulin-regulated enzymes and proteins. The binding of calcium to calmodulin is a cooperative and selective process that is modulated by magnesium. At physiological ionic strength, and only in the presence of magnesium, a large difference is seen between the affinities of sites III and IV (0.09 × 106 M−1) and sites I and II (0.0007 × 106 M−1) for calcium. This difference, together with the positive cooperativity previously observed, explains the stepwise conformational changes induced by calcium. The interaction of calmodulin with its target proteins requires the integrity of different portions of the calmodulin molecule. Calmodulin-regulated enzymes can be divided into three classes according to their abilities to bind with and to be activated by calmodulin fragments: (1) enzymes which are activated by the C-terminal fragment, such as the Ca2+-ATPase and phosphorylase kinase; (2) enzymes which require both halves of the molecule, such as cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase and myosin light chain kinase; and (3) enzymes whose interaction with calmodulin fragments is too weak to be detected by activation, such as calcineurin and the multiprotein kinase. Thus different enzymes may be activated by different calmodulin conformers and the stepwise changes exhibited by calmodulin at different calcium levels can be used to regulate different metabolic pathways.