Control of tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) using insecticides: a review and future prospects

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Abstract
Following a long and varied history, Glossina control has become increasingly dependent upon the use of insecticides. There have been substantial successes with the use of chemicals, but reinvasion has been a constant, wide-spread problem. It is increasingly obvious that tsetse control must be approached on a large scale and requires international funding. Despite the proven ability of insecticides to reduce tsetse infestations there is a general reluctance to expand their usage and non-chemical methods are receiving increasing priority. In this paper, an attempt is made to put tsetse control into perspective. The literature relating to various insecticidal methods and tsetse control operations involving ground spraying, helicopter residual spraying, application of low dosage aerosols from fixed-wing aircraft and chemically impregnated traps is reviewed, and research and development relating to both the entomological and application aspects of chemical control are discussed. It is concluded that, given our present state of knowledge, insecticides provide the most reliable method for large-scale tsetse eradication. Of the methods available, applications of low dosage aerosols from fixed-wing aircraft have the greatest potential for rapid and effective control over large areas with minimal risk of non-target contamination, although refinements to improve efficiency and economy are needed. An integrated insecticidal approach combining the attributes of various chemical, and possibly non-chemical, control methods with the proven large-scale capability of spraying from fixed-wing aircraft could provide a realistic answer to the persistent Glossina and trypanosomiasis problems.