The role of a flat cornea in the amphibious behaviour of the blackfoot penguin (Spheniscus demersus)

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Abstract
Refractive state of the eye of the blackfoot penguin (Spheniscus demersus) was measured in air and under simulated aquatic conditions. Contrary to the literature that states that penguins are adapted for vision under water and are therefore myopic in air, S. demersus is emmetropic in air and moderately hyperopic under water. Study of corneal curvature and pupil response indicates that a mechanism of compensation for amphibious activity involving a split aperture is not present. However, a relatively flat cornea minimizes the refractive change induced when moving from air to water or vice versa. It is suggested that the hyperopia that persists in water may be lessened through accommodation or as a result of the spectral quality of the aquatic environment (blue, blue-green).

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