Pandora's Box Contained Bait: The Global Problem of Introduced Earthworms

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Abstract
Introduced exotic earthworms now occur in every biogeographic region in all but the driest or coldest habitat types on Earth. The global distribution of a few species (e.g., Pontoscolex corethrurus) was noted by early naturalists, but now approximately 120 such peregrine species are recognized to be widespread from regional to global scales, mainly via human activities. Species adapted to human transport and to colonization of disturbed habitats are most widespread and are the principal invasive species. We identify a number of endogenous and exogenous factors that may contribute to the successful establishment and spread of peregrine species. Quantification of these factors may help to determine why certain species become invasive while others do not. Recent advances in theory and modeling of biological invasions and in molecular techniques should prove fruitful in improving our understanding of invasive earthworms, as well as in predicting their impacts on ecosystems.