The thoracic outlet syndrome: Controversies, overdiagnosis, overtreatment, and recommendations for management

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Abstract
This review is an objective critique of the thoracic outlet syndrome, with emphasis on the need to separate true neurogenic and vascular syndromes from nonspecific ones. Major controversies in the diagnosis and management of thoracic outlet syndromes are discussed, with an analysis of major pitfalls encountered in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with nonspecific syndromes. Recommendations to improve diagnostic methods in patients with chronic neurovascular abnormalities in the upper extremities are outlined.