The reliability of cryoSEM for the observation and quantification of xylem embolisms and quantitative analysis of xylem sap in situ

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Abstract
The reliability of cryoSEM for visualizing gas embolisms in xylem vessels of intact, functioning roots is examined and discussed. The possibility that these embolisms form as a result of freezing water columns under tension is discounted by a double‐freeze experiment. Two regions of the same root, one frozen under tension, the other isolated from the tension by the first freeze, had the same percentage of embolisms, as did also long pieces of root frozen simultaneously along their length. The reliability of energy‐dispersive X‐ray analysis to measure xylem sap concentration in situ in frozen tissue was established by measurement of KCl standard solution frozen on stubs, and within xylem vessels. Solute heterogeneity within the vessels varied with freezing procedure; deep‐freeze > LN2 > cryopliers > liquid ethane, but only the deep‐freeze method gave unsatisfactory estimates of concentration for the standard solution. It is concluded that cryoanalytical SEM is useful for direct observation of gas and liquid‐filled compartments, and for solute analyses at depth within intact plant organs.