Effects of acidity, calcium, and aluminium on fish survival and productivity—a review

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Abstract
Fish survival, growth and productivity are dependent on both biological and environmental factors. The latter can be distinguished as edaphic (which includes water quality) and morphometric (which includes lake and stream morphology). Climatic factors are relatively less significant in temperate waters, except over a long time scale, or over wide geographic areas. In the conditions characteristic of acid lakes— low pH, low calcium and high aluminium concentrations—survival may be reduced, growth may be affected and, consequently, productivity will be low. In spite of inconsistencies in the literature, it can be shown that at low pH (⋍ 4.5), a limiting concentration of calcium is about 1 mg litre−1 and aluminium can have adverse effects at 250 μg litre−1 within a limited range of pH. These three factors appear to interact. Taking age specific fecundity of adults and survival of eggs and fry, it is possible to predict the limiting conditions for maintenance, growth or decline of a fish population. At pH 4.5 and calcium < 0.8 mg litre−1 it may be expected that many lakes will be fishless.