The pharyngeal bone musculature of the carp, Cyprinus carpio

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Abstract
The carp, Cyprinus carpio, was found to have eight pairs of muscles inserting on the pharyngeal bones. These were the levator arcus branchialis V, retractor os pharyngeus superioris, retractor os pharyngeus inferioris, cleithropharyngeus superficialis, cleithropharyngeus profundus, coracobranchialis posterior, transversus ventralis V and subarcualis rectus communis. Complete morphological descriptions of the muscles are given along with relevant osteological information. The pharyngeal muscles function in mastication by moving the bones and their attached teeth against the chewing pad so that crushing and grinding of food occurs during occlusion. In addition, certain pharyngeal bone muscles enlarge the lumen of the posterior pharynx thereby admitting food to the region of the teeth and chewing pad. The homologies of some of these muscles are considered along with the historical details pertinent to the establishment of a suitable nomenclature for the pharyngeal bone muscles.