Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism [and Comments and Reply]

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Abstract
The ability to experience mental imagery is innate in human beings. "Mental imagery cultivation" is proposed to identify technological traditions devoted to the deliberate, repeated induction of enhanced mental imagery, usually in select individuals. Mental imagery enhancement training increases the vividness and the controlledness of mental imagery for its functional and adaptive value. Mental imagery cultivation is usually embedded within magicoreligious traditions and is independent of societal complexity. The cultivation of visions in shamanism is explored as an example. Experimental evidence from the psychological literature is presented that demonstrates the functional equivalence of mental imagery and perception at specific nonvolitional levels of the psychophysiological apparatus, thus suggesting that the shaman experiences "visions" as "real" and reacts on a deep psychophysiological level to their contents. Individual differences in mental imagery ability may be a major determinant of the social role of the shaman. Experimental evidence for the functional importance of mental imagery in human memory is presented to suggest that the shaman''s legendary superior mnemonic skills may be due to the development of his use of mental imagery.