Applications in energy, optics and electronics

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Abstract
Thin films play a vital role in nearly all electronic and optical devices. They have long been familiar as antireflection coatings on window glass, video screens, camera lenses and other optical devices; these are generally films less than 100 nm thick made from a transparent (dielectric) material with a refractive index less than that of the substrate. In solar‐energy conversion, similar layers of thin films are now serving as antireflection coatings on solar‐energy collectors; semitransparent metal films are used in Schottky‐barrier solar cells; combinations of thin films are used for photothermal devices that generate low‐ or high‐grade heat; and thin semiconductor films on metal or glass substrates form a promising type of low‐cost solar cell. In integrated circuits, of course, thin films are pervasive: metal layers form all onchip electrical connections and gate regions for field‐effect transistors, to name just two examples; oxide or nitride films form insulating barriers between other films; and layers of semiconductors are integral parts of all the structures. One of the newest applications of thin‐film technologies is in circuits based films made from superconductors forming, for example, Josephson junctions such as the one shown in figure 1.