Scientific Studies of Natural Flight

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Abstract
In this paper the author gives the results of studies and experiments in bird flight with a view to bringing out features that can be used to advantage in future construction of airplanes. Birds can remain stationary in the air, they can rise and descend almost vertically, and can alight on a particular spot slowly. These are maneuvers not yet possible with airplanes. The author has also developed a new theory of flapping flight. He renounces the analogy between wings and oars, and shows that flapping flight consists of a succession of short descents in gliding flight. The bird by flapping its wings is lifted a certain amount, and when released moves forward by gliding. Various classes of flight by birds are discussed under four general headings. They are gliding flight, soaring flight, propulsion flight, and flapping flight. The mechanics, speed, stability, and useful power of the various classes are worked out by typical examples to show how the various types of birds are adapted to particular types of flying. The exterior anatomy of birds, problems of flight, and resistance of air are discussed, and examples are given to show the influence of the lines of the bird on its aerodynamic characteristics.

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