Standards for the application of X‐ray microanalysis to biological specimens

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Abstract
SUMMARY: A review on the subject of compounds used as standards for biological X‐ray microanalysis is presented. The general approach used for standardization has been to use standards which resemble the specimen closely in composition. Thus, standards based on proteins have been used for analysis of quench‐frozen cryosectioned specimens, whereas standards based on embedding resins have been used for resin‐embedded material. The properties of, and problems associated with, each type of standard are recognized and have been well documented. The choice and analysis of standard should not be a drawback to fully quantitative analysis of biological material. Attention is drawn to the fact that the problems associated with any quantification procedure need to be kept in mind when analysis of standards is undertaken.