Modification of Genetic Constraints on Frequency-Dependent Selection

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Abstract
The prediction of phenotypic equilibrium states through reasoning about evolutionarily stable states (ESS''s) is commonplace in evolutionary biology. When there is a specific genetic system underlying the transmission of phenotypes, however, genetic constraints may prevent the realization of phenotypic equilibria. With two-strategy games and a one-locus genetic system, the direction of selection is always toward toward an ESS, and all stable genetic equilibria that are not ESS''s (non-ES equilibria) can be characterized as being as close to the ESS as the genetic system allows, at least locally. Starting from these non-ES equilibria, a series of computer simulations shows that the evolution of modifier genes at a second locus is expected to move the population closer to the ESS, although there are counterexamples. With multiple-strategy games, the genetic constraints are much more complex. It is not generally the case that genetic equilibria are "close" to the ESS in some sense.

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