Activation of NF-κB in Virus-Infected Macrophages Is Dependent on Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress and Intracellular Calcium: Downstream Involvement of the Kinases TGF-β-Activated Kinase 1, Mitogen-Activated Kinase/Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase Kinase 1, and IκB Kinase

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Abstract
Efficient clearance of virus infections depends on the nature of the host response raised by the infected organism. A proinflammatory cell-mediated immune response is important for elimination of many viruses, including herpesviruses. Macrophages are intimately involved in generation of a proinflammatory response, the initiation of which involves activation of the transcription factor NF-κB. However, the mechanisms of HSV-induced NF-κB activation are poorly understood. In this study we demonstrate that activation of NF-κB by HSV in macrophages is dependent on a functional viral genome and proceeds through a mechanism involving the cellular IκB kinase, as well as the upstream kinases TGF-β-activated kinase 1, mitogen-activated kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase 1, and possibly NF-κB-inducing kinase. Furthermore, we show that HSV triggers NF-κB activation by a signaling pathway involving oxidative stress in mitochondria and intracellular calcium, because specific inhibition of mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen intermediates, as well as mitochondrial calcium channels, prevented NF-κB activation. Together, these results point to mitochondria as cellular checkpoints able to initiate NF-κB activation after virus infection and also show that the cellular NF-κB-regulating kinases IκB kinase, TGF-β-activated kinase 1, mitogen-activated kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase 1, and possibly NF-κB-inducing kinase, are essential components in the HSV-induced signaling pathway.