The cost of sex

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Abstract
Between 1870 and 1935, sex presented three major problems for evolutionists to solve. First it was necessary to explain the widespread sexual differentiation of animals that extends beyond the primary requirements of reproduction. Darwin (1871) introduced sexual selection as the solution to this problem. Second, there was a need to explain stability of the sex ratio. This problem was resolved by Fisher (1930), who showed quantitatively how natural selection can stabilize the sex ratio. Third and most significant was the problem of explaining the value of sex in relation to its cost, and of showing by a favorable ratio of benefit to cost why sex should be widely maintained. This problem was dealt with by Fisher (1930) and Muller (1932), who resolved it by reference to group selection. Group selection, if accepted as sufficient to offset the cost of sex to individuals, would also account for the persistence of sexual selection.

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